Chapter Seven:

Tendai and Shingon

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The Heian period came into existence because of Emperor Kanmu's desire to distance his court from the political meddling of the Buddhist establishment in Nara. As we have already seen, however, Buddhism thrived during the Heian period and was a major force in court politics. In contrast with the Nara period, however, institutional Buddhism in Heian times often took an indirect approach to political influence. The new Heian government very much wanted to associate itself with some kind of Buddhism because of Buddhism's potential power to protect the state. Early in the Ninth century, the Heian court recognized two new forms of Buddhism, Tendai 天台 and Shingon 真言.

These two varieties of Buddhism not only exerted a major influence on life and culture in the Heian period, they also sowed the seeds of several major subsequent developments in Japanese Buddhism. Both Tendai and Shingon are forms of Esoteric Buddhism (mikkyō 密教). Esoteric Buddhism tends to rely on mysterious rites and symbolic objects. It tends to stress that truth unfolds through multiple layers of meaning as one's insight develops. There are thus different teachings and symbols for different levels of sophistication. The different schools of Esoteric Buddhism typically claim to be privy to a set of secret teachings passed on from the Buddha himself to superior disciples to the present day. Most forms of Esoteric Buddhism are eclectic. In other words, they draw on a wide variety of religious practices, whether they be other forms of Buddhism or even non-Buddhist religions. This chapter examines the basic doctrines and historical significance of Tendai and Shingon. The material here will reappear in later parts of the book, so be sure to get a good grasp of Tendai and Shingon before moving on.

Tendai

First, read this brief *historical summary.*

The monk Saichō 最澄 formally introduced Tendai Buddhism to Japan in 807, after returning from study in China. Saichō (#image 1#  #image 2#) is also know by another name, Dengyō-Daishi 伝教大師, a posthumous title meaning roughly "Great Teacher and Transmitter of Teachings." The "Daishi" (Great Teacher) part of his title is common to other Buddhists of high stature, so we will see it again. The name Tendai comes from the name of a mountain in China, which is the geographic origin of this form of Buddhism. Saichō established a monastery at Mt. Hiei 比叡山, on the outskirts of the capital. In doing so, he had the full support of the Heian court. The court was happy to see the monastery established relatively far away from the center of the capital, owing to the earlier problems in Nara. Furthermore, Mt. Hiei was located in the northeast quadrant of the capital region. In the geomantic thinking of the time, the northeast was the "demon entrance," from which malevolent influences might enter the capital or, on a smaller scale, one's home. The Tendai monastery and temple on Mt. Hiei, therefore, served to guard the "demon entrance," protecting the capital from harm.

This type of concern with the proper placement of buildings and other objects and their directional orientation is called geomancy. It is also known by its Chinese name, fengshui 風水 (Jp. fūsui) which literally means "wind and water." Geomantic ideas spread from China to Korea and Japan. We need not concern ourselves with geomancy other than to point out that it is not part of the original Buddhism of India. Instead, the mixing together of Buddhism and geomancy is a Chinese development. That the establishment of Tendai Buddhism also helped improve the geomantic condition of the capital was obvious to any educated Japanese at the time. In both China and Japan, there was a strong tendency to regard all forms of religion (including a quasi-science like geomancy) as a valid window for gaining insight into some aspect of how the universe works. Rhetorically speaking, therefore, how should a new religion be packaged and presented for maximum acceptance? It should claim: 1) to be all inclusive; and 2) to organize all other religions and forms of knowledge into a coherent, albeit complex, network. In this way, a new religion can present itself as being superior to other forms and practices while still affirming their value. Tendai took this approach, but it is not unique in doing so. Shingon also claimed to be all inclusive and systematic, as did other forms of Buddhism such as Kegon (Flower-Garland Sect) 華厳宗, which we do not study in this course.

More specifically, Saichō presented Tendai as a contrast to the varieties of Buddhism located in the previous capital, Nara. The six major schools of Buddhism in Nara, he said, were excessively narrow. They focused only on academic study to the exclusion of practicing Buddhism with one's own body. Tendai, he said, gives equal weight to academic study and training/practice. He summed this point up with the formulaic expression kyōkan nimon 教観ニ門, roughly "Study and practice are two gateways." The term "practice" here refers especially to meditation, though it also includes other activities. 

Most forms of Buddhism have a specific textual basis. For Tendai (and also for Nichiren 日蓮宗, another form of Buddhism we do not deal with in this course) it is the Lotus Sutra (Jp. Hokekyō or Hokkekyō 法華経) (#complete text#). The word sutra is common to many of the major works in the Buddhist canon. There are, for example, the Heart Sutra, Flower-Garland Sutra, #Sutra of Visualization of the Buddha of Infinite Life#, and many others (click on title to read the full text). The lotus is an important #Buddhist symbol.# It is a large, #spectacular flower# that grows up from the bottom of muddy ponds. It therefore suggests rising above the grime of the ordinary world, that is, a state of spiritual purity. Because the lotus appears to grow spontaneously out of the mud, it also symbolizes divine birth. In Tendai and other forms of Esoteric Buddhism, the Lotus came to symbolize the #potential for Buddhahood# in everyone. Those who are not yet Buddhas are like lotus flowers before they open up. Images of Buddhas or Bodhisattvas seated on a lotus are common. They represent in part the idea of the blooming of Buddhahood or enlightenment within a person (or even other beings--not only humans).

The Lotus Sutra is arguably the most influential text in Buddhism. It lacks a clear plot and rambles around too much for modern sensibilities. The Lotus Sutra records the event of the original Buddha giving, or about to give, a sermon that has the power to save all beings regardless of karmic status. The text constantly builds up expectations about this great sermon only to (apparently) digress into stories that involve someone lying to or deceiving someone else for that other person's benefit. In other words, these are tales describing specific uses of skillful means (Jp. hōben 方便). Be sure you understand skillful means--if not, go back and review. It also makes some other points, some relevant to Tendai Buddhism, but we will omit them here.

In the end, the Buddha never does get around to giving the sermon, but he has explained a wide variety of uses of skillful means. But perhaps that is the sermon, namely, that skillful means is the way to salvation or enlightenment and that a wide variety of skillful means is necessary to ensure that there is something for everyone. Tendai Buddhists sometimes use the metaphor of an ordinary roadway full of travelers. Some ride carriages, some are on horseback, some are walking, but, regardless of the means they use to get there, they are all traveling down the same path. Tendai, in short, claims to offer the best set of means. It has both a wide variety of them, even for beginners, and also the most powerful ("high tech" would also be an appropriate term) rituals and techniques for the advanced practitioners. With effort, goes the Tendai claim, anyone can attain enlightenment in his or her own present body.

Now, some background information. Recall that original Buddhism is non-theistic but that deities came into Buddhism later, under the influence of Hinduism. At the most sophisticated levels of teaching, these deities do not exist as specific, separate entities. In other words, one can argue that Buddhism is still a non-theistic religion. Deities, in the form of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Wisdom Kings, and lesser types (which we will study in due course), however, have an important role to play in Buddhism even at relatively high levels of practice. Although the basic teachings of Buddhism (Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path) seem relatively simple on the surface, a deep understanding of them is anything but simple, especially if "understanding" means to know and practice with one's whole body.

One reason for this complexity is that Buddhism addresses our psychological makeup, which is no simple thing, and, to some extent, varies from person to person. The deities can serve as devices (i.e., skillful means) to aid our understanding of Buddhism in various ways. Most basically, they can stand for specific Buddhist teachings, principles, and psychological states, with the more abstract concepts personified by the higher forms of deity and the specific details personified by lesser forms of deity. By embodying difficult or abstract concepts in the form of a quasi-human deity, these concepts may become easier to understand. Furthermore, these deities are depicted in stylized ways and augmented with stylized symbols such as hand-held objects. The iconography of such Buddhist imagery, which we study in a later chapter, reinforces ideas and concepts in Buddhist teaching.

One of the strengths of Buddhism in general is that it recognizes people as they actually are, even while trying to transform them. One characteristic of most people is that they understand best when ideas take concrete form. Also, people tend to personify ideas and to look to others more powerful or accomplished than themselves as role models. The various deities in Buddhism serve such purposes.¹ The various deities are manifestations of each other (when at the same level in the hierarchy, Buddhas, for example) or are manifestations of specific aspects of another deity (for example, the compassion of a Bodhisattva has several aspects, one of which is a burning desire to save others, which is manifested as a fiery wisdom king). Ultimately, all deities are part of the unitary reality of the cosmos, and when a Buddhist seeker has eliminated the sense of "I," s/he will no longer need deities, and they will vanish. S/he and the deities and the cosmos will all be one.

Many forms of Mahayana Buddhism, Tendai included, are based on a specific deity or the (alleged) teachings of a specific Buddha. For Tendai this figure is Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha. Tendai does not recognize him as the only Buddha. Instead, he is held up as the best example of Buddhahood for others, and his excellence is summed up in the slogan "the true attainment in the remote past" (Kuon jitsujō 久遠実成). In other words, although he lived long ago, Shakyamuni succeeded in attaining enlightenment. By showing others how to do the same, practically speaking, he created the possibility for present-day enlightenment. Many of the more elaborate doctrines and practices of Tendai are allegedly derived from secret, advanced teachings of Shakyamuni, which is another reason that his enlightenment serves as a template for the enlightenment of others. Actually, Shakyamuni's enlightenment was but the realization of the original state of enlightenment we all have within us. Thus, Shakyamuni's enlightenment is called "the original enlightenment" (hongaku 本覚). Tendai stresses that this original enlightenment is part of all of us, and its practices are designed to bring it to fruition.

Let us survey the major doctrines of Tendai. One is the Triple Truth or Three-fold Truth (isshin-sangan 一心三観). The three interrelated components of this truth are: 1) void or emptiness (ku 空); 2) temporary or provisional (ge 仮); and 3) the middle path (chū 中). "Reality" is characterized by all three of these qualities simultaneously, and the "correct view" is the middle path, i.e., a transcendent understanding that unifies the void and the provisional. Simply stated, "void" means that nothing exists in and of itself. Instead, all things exist only with reference to other things, i.e., they have provisional existence. For this reason, the phenomenal world is always in flux. The middle path, i.e., the correct understanding of reality, is the realization that everything is simultaneously provisional and yet void of independent existence. Furthermore, we should realize this point without becoming fixated on either the void aspect of reality or the provisional aspect.

I realize that this concept may initially seem strange. *Studying this diagram* may help clarify it (PDF file). It is a refinement of the Basic Buddhist idea that the world of phenomena is illusory. Tendai doctrine would agree that it is, but it also takes seriously the obvious existence of a phenomenal world. The Triple Truth explains (or postulates) that the ever-changing phenomenal world and the void are at some deeper level of understanding, both the same. Therefore, instead of becoming attached to either aspect of reality, we should develop an understanding that transcends and unites both.

The standard metaphor for the Triple Truth is a mirror. Here is one way to explain the Triple Truth via a mirror. The mirror's brightness is void or empty because it "exists" only as a result of outside input, not independent of other things. The objects reflected in the mirror are temporary, that is, provisional. The whole mirror is the middle path, which stands for the true state of things, and which integrates void and temporary. In other words, the mirror reveals both the ultimate non-substantiality of worldly things while also affirming their every-changing, provisional existence. Got it? Maybe not.

Then here is another way to explain the same thing: co-dependent existence. In other words, nothing at all (e.g., physical objects, feelings, ideas, the sense of "I") exists in and of itself. In this sense, the metaphysical core of all things is void (or perhaps "voidness"). Stated another way, there is no ultimate foundation of phenomena in the world. Of course, at a more mundane, earthly level, things obviously exist. But they exist in a temporary, ever-changing state, taking on form only in relation to the matrix of other provisional things (with "things" here including ideas, thoughts, and other non-tangible phenomena). The things that the unenlightened person perceives are temporary and provisional, yet s/he often regards them as if they were permanent and stable. Therefore--and this is an important conclusion--all phenomena have ontological equality, none being more basic or fundamental than any others. They are all equally temporary and provisional. (For a heavy-duty explanation of co-dependent existence, #click here.# Incidentally, this non-foundational aspect of Japanese Buddhist thought has led some contemporary and recent scholars to claim that Japan was post-modern way back in its middle ages. If this last point does not make sense to you, don't worry about it.)

If we take the Triple Truth seriously, then I must revise what I said about Shakyamuni above. We might refer to him as the basis of Tendai insofar as Tendai places strong emphasis on putting Buddhism into practice. But Shakyamuni is not ontologically more fundamental than anything else (in other words, his existence is not a foundation for anything). Indeed, other Buddhas may seem more fundamental when we look at different issues. For example, Vairocana (Jp. Dainichi 大日如来) is a Buddha commonly associated with the sun (hereafter I will often call him/her/it "the Solar Buddha"). Vairocana is the metaphysical basis of the cosmos in Tendai and Shingon. "Basis," however, is a problematic term because no one thing is any more or less basic than anything else. Tendai preaches a radical ontological equality in which symbol and that which is symbolized are essentially the same. A more accurate way to put it is that everything is a symbol of everything else, and nothing is the basic "thing" for which symbols stand. An object reflected in a mirror is no different from the reflection--both are void at the core and temporary manifestations. OK, are you on board? If not, look up unfamiliar terms like ontological/ontology in a dictionary (it's easy, just click on the word!) and then reread these paragraphs.

In the realm of literary and artistic symbols, what sort of influence might Tendai exert? As you might expect, taking Tendai seriously would argue for a radical equality of symbols and a recognition that everything is in fact a symbol of everything else. What about the Six Courses (rokudō), for example? Do they signify a real, knock-on-wood state of existence that is other than nirvana, or is nirvana within the Six Courses and the Six Courses within nirvana? For Tendai, it is the latter. Indeed, Tendai often added 4 more courses of enlightened beings to the basic 6 to create a 10-course wheel. One point in doing so was to emphasize that nirvana was within samsara and vice versa.

There is a practical problem here, namely, how can we even conceive of such a counter-intuitive idea? Part of the answer lies in changing our fundamental mental processes and thus the very things we regard intuitively as "natural" or obvious. Tendai-influenced art and literature often seeks to stimulate or accelerate such a change. Indeed, Buddhist monks in Medieval Japan often justified their pursuit of the visual and literary arts as forms of skillful means to assist others.²

Another important implication of Tendai's radical ontological equality is that one need not abandon the phenomenal world to find enlightenment. One can, at least in theory, become enlightened while being socially engaged. Tendai monks did not necessarily put this last point into practice, but the founders of Pure Land Buddhism did, as we shall see later. According to Tendai teachings, all people possess an equal potential for enlightenment (a typical slogan was bonshō-fu'ni 凡聖不二, "the ordinary person and the sage are not two different things"). In practice, Tendai monks enjoyed aristocratic patronage and tended strongly toward elitism. It was Pure Land Buddhism that took this Tendai egalitarian potential and produced a religion popular among ordinary people.

To summarize the Triple Truth and related concepts, let us rely on the words of Tamura Yoshiro, which are slightly different from mine. In this passage, he is discussing the Tendai idea of "Original Enlightenment" (hongaku 本覚). For our purposes, simply regard the Original Enlightenment as Shakyamuni's enlightenment. Furthermore, the terms "nondual unity" and "monism" refer to a nirvana-like state of no distinction between things, i.e., the void. "Dualistic actuality" and similar terms refer to the provisional:

We must note . . . that even though the ultimate nature of existence is nondual unity, this does not mean that we can ignore the dualistic nature of ordinary existence. If we were to depict the human real pictorially, we might represent it as a frame of dualism suspended in space (space representing nondualism, or emptiness). Emptiness is the essence of the human realm, while the frame is characteristic of ordinary existence. Human existence is twofold, comprising an ultimate, monistic aspect and an actual, dualistic aspect. To be born human entails the task of realizing the ultimate, monistic aspect within the actual, dualistic aspect. This is the purpose of human life.

It is a mistake to become attached to dualistic actuality and remain unaware of the monistic essence; but it is also wrong to abandon dualistic actuality and attach oneself to the monistic essence. The nondual must be vividly realized in the dual, and the dual must become actual because of the nondual. In Buddhism this is described as "not two but two" and "two but not two." The two great mandalas of the Shingon sect, the Diamond realm mandala and the Womb realm mandala, are graphic representations of these two principles. (Yoshiro Tamura, Japanese Buddhism: A Cultural History, Jeffrey Hunter, trans. [Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Co., 2000], pp. 76-77.)

We will examine these two Shingon mandalas shortly. Notice especially the purpose in life according to Tendai: realizing the dual within the nondual and vice versa.

Another key teaching of Tendai, and which is also common to most forms of Mahayana Buddhism, is the Doctrine of the Threefold Body 三身. It is based on the same general idea as the Triple Truth and says that all enlightened beings have three "bodies," that is, forms in which they appear and may be apprehended by others. Ultimately, all three bodies are the same and are not really "things" in and of themselves, as per the explanation of the Triple Truth above. Nevertheless, as provisional forms, they can be very useful for lesser beings (recall the explanation of deities above).

The three bodies "exist" simultaneously. One is the Principle Body, also called the Dharma Body (Jp. hosshin 法身). It is the Buddha as an abstract concept, ideal, or principle. The Principle Body is impersonal and ahistorical. It is Buddha-as-concept, that is, Buddhahood. The second body is the Result Body, often called the Enjoyment Body (Jp. hōjin 報身). It is the body of anyone who has attained profound spiritual insight by causal action, that is, by doing things to bring about his/her own enlightenment. This body has two aspects: 1) a body for self-enjoyment, that is the enlightened being enjoying his/her own enlightenment; and b) a body for others to enjoy. This second aspect is the idea of the Bodhisattva, who waits to enter nirvana out of compassion for others and assists them in their quest. Finally, there is the Transformation Body (Jp. ōjin 応身). This body can become manifest in virtually any form to assist sentient beings. This idea of the Transformation Body is closely linked with the Japanese phenomenon of honji-suijaku 本地垂跡, commonly--but somewhat inaccurately--described as the "merging of #Buddhism and Shintō.#" We will take up honji-suijaku in a later chapter.

Is one body superior to or more fundamental than the others, or do the two of the bodies derive from one of them? No, at least not according to Tendai theology. Naturally, this degree of equivalence was too difficult for many people to grasp, and so there is a tendency to regard one as more fundamental than the others (usually the Principle Body, owing to a bias in favor of the intellect). Ideally, however, we should strive to see all three bodies as one. Success in this endeavor would indicate a high level of attainment.

Notice how this doctrine can be immensely useful in linking together all the many deities in Buddhism, preserving their distinctiveness while also affirming their oneness. For those of you who have studied classical China, notice how similar this way of thinking is to correlative cosmology.

Because Tendai affirmed the equality of all phenomena, it was a broad religion, open to many external influences. Tendai was especially influenced by Shingon, its main competitor near the capital, as well as native Japanese religion (often called "Shintō"). Broadly speaking, Tendai's historical significance is that it sowed the seeds for many new forms of Japanese religion. Pure Land Buddhism, for example, developed in Japan from Tendai. So, too, did Nichiren Buddhism.

Furthermore, Tendai strongly influenced a major mode of Japanese religious practice: rigorous physical ordeals. Tendai devotees, for example, sometimes take long hikes through mountainous areas, meditate in winter while standing under cold waterfalls, and otherwise expose themselves to the elements for the purpose of spiritual training. Mixtures of native Japanese religious traditions and Tendai ordeals created various forms of religious training called Shugendō 修験道. Practitioners of Shugendō often subject themselves to various kinds of ordeals and severe physical/mental/spiritual *training.* Indeed, most forms of religious or quasi-religious *personal ordeals* to which a small percentage of the Japanese population subject themselves are at least in part derived from Tendai (#Yamabushi tools#). Tendai also provided a variety of ritual practices, some of which other forms of Japanese religion adopted, a good example being the Goma or Fire Ceremony (#Goma image#). In short, Tendai was an incubator for many forms of religious practice in medieval Japan.

Tendai was also influential in a more secular way. Its monastery on #Mt. Hiei,# and, later, a second monastery, called Miidera, became militarily powerful. At first, the two Tendai monasteries fought against each other, with Miidera being reduced to ashes several times in the Heian period. The conflict between the two Tendai centers was the result of rivalry over Tendai leadership. Between 981 and 1185, the monks at Mt. Hiei turned their attention to the political affairs in the capital and repeatedly sent armies, some numbering in the thousands, to intimidate the court. It should be stressed that many of the ostensible practitioners of Buddhism at the time did not live according to Buddhist principles. Institutional religion of any kind is subject to corruption, and Buddhism was no better or worse in this regard than the world's other major religions.

We will examine some of the specific rites, rituals, and meditative techniques of Esoteric Buddhism in the next section on Shingon because many of Tendai's practices are also found in Shingon, albeit with small variations.

Basic Facts^† Summary for Tendai:

=> Founder: Saichō (Dengyō-Daishi), early 9^th century

=> Deity basis: Shakyamuni (the original Buddha)

=> Doctrinal summary: "The true attainment in the remote past"

=> Key doctrines: Triple Truth, 3 Bodies, Original Enlightenment, Skillful Means

=> Sales pitch: "Study & practice are two gateways;" & enlightenment in one’s present lifetime

=> Broader significance: Sowed the seeds of many other forms of religion